Risk, tribe and lore: New Paths to Post-Baccalaureate Learning in Digital Libraries Peter Lyman Professor, School of Information Management and Systems, UC Berkeley What should a digital library be and do, if it is to support post-baccalaureate learning in the future? Digital libraries as such do not yet exist in fully realized form, thus the design of the library of the future might yet be influenced by a statement of the requirements of post-baccalaureate education. The purpose of this paper is to explore the social and technical parameters of such a vision. Clearly the first task of a digital library must be to provide access to information, and to appropriate tools for information management, thus library collections must be digitized and organized in a manner that can be searched intelligently and reliably. Today, however, three very different kinds of digital libraries are emerging in parallel, each reflecting a different approach to intellectual property, yet each offering unique possibilities for post-baccalaureate education: Libraries are creating public domain collections on the Internet, by digitizing out-of-copyright print collections, archives and catalogs, often in collaboration with faculty and in support of academic programs that reach across institutions. The World Wide Web allows authors to place their own intellectual property directly into a new, global public domain. The public portion of the Web is the equivalent in size of a library of a million volumes, ranging in content from government information to electronic journals to teaching and learning resources created by faculty and students around the world. And, thirdly, publishers are creating an e-commerce library, online fee-for-service information on the private part of the Net, that which is protected by password and encryption technologies. In the next few years, it is estimated that five thousand peer reviewed print journals in the sciences, technology, medicine and industry will be available online, anywhere in the world, for a fee. Discovering the relative value of each of these information resources for post-baccalaureate education is one of the most interesting challenges of our time. Even books are now published on line, the first and most famous being Bill Mitchell’s City of Bits which is free online but has sold twice the number of print copies projected by MIT Press, suggesting that the future of electronic publishing may yet take surprising turns. Yet information alone is not enough, for the essence of learning is turning information into knowledge, and knowledge into practice. For digital library design, that means linking information management technology directly to the social relationships and institutions that create and manage knowledge. Libraries are more than inventories of information and management tools such as online catalogs: they are social institutions that support a sense of academic community within disciplines and professions. And yet, digital libraries have not yet been designed to support these social dimensions of the library, that is, to link information resources to the learning communities who use them. This will become urgent if post-baccalaureate education is to reach out beyond the campus. Today, three modes of learning can be found on the Internet that may be useful models for designing digital libraries for post-baccalaureate learning risk, tribe, and lore. "Risk" refers to the kinds of learning that seem to be possible within computer simulations of social life, through role playing, or anonymous communication in online environments such as Internet Relay Chats (IRC), Multi-User Domains (MUDs), and Muds-Object Oriented (MOOs). Can simulations provide or support mentoring, and role playing to participate in educational experiences not otherwise accessible to the learner? Can anonymous role-playing complement learning in educational places, by encouraging participation in learning by those traditionally silenced by the hidden currents of power and authority in the classroom? "Tribe" refers to the sense of community that participants often experience on the Internet, which, as we shall see, may not be more "virtual" than most other kinds of community available in modern urban life. Can the digital library be designed to overcome the geographical isolation of distant learners, and give them a sense of participation in the cultures of learning? And "Lore" refers to the knowledge and values that characterize professions, enabling independent practitioners to feel themselves to be members of a community who collectively transform information into knowledge, and knowledge into practice. Printed literatures have been created by scholarly communities, and have in turn sustained their sense of community. How can these knowledge communities be created, or sustained, across time and space on the Internet? Although very new, these technological modes of learning are already being adapted for education by teachers and students, using the Internet as a found environment. Equally important, evaluating these experimental practices might enable us to shift the priority for technological development in education away from the design of teaching technologies, often focused on drill and practice, to the design of open environments for learning. How, then, might information management and knowledge management be combined into a comprehensive strategy for post-baccalaureate futures to provide access to information to every learner from every location, and the opportunity to participate in learning communities to practice the knowledge arts? This kind of a digital library will not evolve naturally. It must be part of a collective vision of the future of post-baccalaureate education sufficiently powerful to command resources and leadership. Finally, even if such a digital library were to be built, it would not be sufficient for post-baccalaureate learning. Technology mediated learning is disembodied, lacking the tacit dimensions of teacher/student mentoring and communication. Thus, as we shall see, the social cohesion of networked groups is far stronger when combined with occasional face to face meetings. But the existence of such a digital library might fundamentally change the way post-baccalaureate learning is organized, by organizing education around learning rather than around teaching, and by extending its scope in dramatic ways. Information Property, Digital Libraries and Opportunities for Learning. For all of the promise of information technology for post-baccalaureate education, the future of learning will be determined more by intellectual property policy than by technology. It is not information per se that is educational, but access to information, and the modes in which individuals and groups are allowed to appropriate information for learning, and these factors are controlled by intellectual property policy. Thus the "digital" library is still a metaphor, not yet a social institution, for we do not yet know how information will be managed and used within networked information spaces. Today three kinds of digital libraries are evolving, reflecting three kinds of intellectual property management: the subsidized research library, based on copyright policy; the public domain information of the Web, based on a gift exchange economy; and the market economy of commercial publishing, based on contract law. 1. The research library model. Collections are now being placed on line by research libraries, individually and in consortia, by digitizing paper-based collections and placing them in the public domain on Web pages. Often these collections are unique archives for which Libraries own the intellectual property rights, or out of copyright materials. In many cases these collections are the creation of academic disciplines for which access to information is very difficult, either because the discipline is small and geographically dispersed, or because research materials are rare. Thus there are projects to publish archival materials in many such academic fields, such as the study of Papyri, or Medieval History, or the History of Science. Or, in some scientific fields, competitive pressures have encouraged the use of the network to gain swift access; most famous of all in this category is the preprint server (called XXX) at Los Alamos, on which can be found most of the important preprints in High Energy Physics. Or, some kinds of information require online contexts because they only make sense within digital genres, such as gene sequences within the Human Genome Database. These projects share the same the economic model as the research library, in which use is subsidized, thus each faces the dilemma that research library budgets are growing far slower than is the price and volume of information. Unfortunately, thus far digital research collections are not less expensive than print collections, nor do they replace the need for print collections. Thus the economic model supporting the digital library is not established, and startup funding is far easier to find than continuing operational budgets. More hopefully, Libraries have long experience in inter-institutional cooperation. For example, the national co-ops for cataloging (the Research Libraries Group and OCLC), are now creating digital collections, paid for by membership dues or subscriptions. And new consortia are being created. The Digital Library Federation (DLF) has decided to build collectively an American history archive, called "The Making of America." An alternative mode of cooperation is illustrated by the Mellon Foundation startup funding for the Journal Storage Project (JSTOR), a non-profit but self-funding business to digitize and provide access to back runs of rarely used but essential scholarly journals. JSTOR is funded by subscription, and if it can attain fiscal self-sufficiency, will bring the last century of journal publications to every networked desktop. These are important beginnings, but what is still lacking is national coordination, both in the form of common technical standards and collection policies and priorities. This kind of coordination does exist in the United Kingdom, where all education funding is from one source, but in the United States the need for cooperation is in tension with competition among institutions for prestige and funding. 2. The Web as a Gift-Exchange Society. If print libraries serve as the model for the digital libraries being built by librarians, with their expertise in bibliographic control and collection building, thus quality control, the World Wide Web is being built directly by authors. Information on the Web is usually born-digital, not digital by conversion, and thus carries all of the new kinds of value of digital documents. Copying digital documents is inexpensive, and distributing them globally is possible in seconds. Storing them is inexpensive and compact, compared to library storage, although we do not yet know how to archive them for the long run. Managing digital documents is easier because they can be searched, and reordered in seconds. They may be multi-media, to use that somewhat redundant term. And, the most original single consequence of this is that the concept of authorship is changing, for collaboration in writing these works is possible between people all over the world. The Web is an original new medium for cultural expression, one that transforms both writing and reading. The Web began as a medium for publishing, using a rhetorical structure based on hypertext (HTML), which is a subset of the SGML standard which governs markup of print documents. It is a multimedia text including mostly words and numbers, some fixed and some dynamic, and images equivalent in size to a library of about 1 million volumes. There are seven million writers on the public portion of the World Wide Web, each creating and giving away intellectual property in the largest gift exchange community ever created. In abolishing the distinction between writing and publishing, a new culture of information is being created; often Web publications are collectively written, at times by groups of participants who do not know one another personally. On the Web there are writers but no authors or authorities, everything is published, and its value is determined by readers (or, as they are called, users). This raises the question of the quality of online information. Unlike a book, every reading is a unique performance in which the user links information together in a pattern. These links are the trails through an information wilderness, one in which the quality of information is defined by its utility to the readers, individually and collectively, not its provenance. This problem of the quality of information is being addressed in different ways by the different variants of the digital library. Library collections are vetted by librarians, and digital publishers use traditional editorial authorities. On Amazon.Com’s Web site a third possibility is illustrated, collaborative filtering. When I ordered the CD of Arvo Part’s Kanon Pokajanen, the screen informed me that other people ordering the Kanon were likely to have also ordered Piazzola’s Maria de Buenos Aires. Rather like evaluating a scholarly work by the number of citations to it by other works, "collaborative filtering" defines a sense of social collectivity by using link analysis technology to allow people with common interests to share information about information. Some argue that this sort of access to information will shift market power from the producer to the consumer, and that therefore the key to business success in the information age will be the creation customer loyalty by creating such communities of users. One book from the Harvard Business School Press puts it this way: "As virtual communities tip the balance of power in commercial transactions toward the customer, they’ll provide a powerful vehicle for vendors to deepen and broaden their relationships with customers. This is likely to affect the way traditional businesses are run in physical space’ as well as in the virtual world In fact, ownership of customer relationships as a whole is likely to be thrown up for grabs by the emergence of virtual communities." These themes, the evolution of authorship towards collaborative writing and from individual to collective learning in virtual communities, are the subject of the second part of the paper, on knowledge management. In retrospect, perhaps it should not be surprising that a discussion of information quality might be discovered to lead back to the problem of learning, on the Web or elsewhere. 3. The E-Commerce Library In other respects as well Amazon.Com may be the best illustration of the digital library of the future. Today, most publishers do not sell digital books or journals to libraries, but use contracts to license the use of their "information content." Thus contracts are replacing the copyright doctrines of first sale doctrine (which allows inter-library loan) and fair use (which allows copying for educational purposes). Indeed, the term information content’ was designed by the publishing industry to signify that they have become merchant bankers in intellectual property; the business of publishing now concerns licensing the use of information. Publishers’ contracts generally forbid the use of digital documents in manner permitted by copyright, although in practice it is difficult to prevent illegal copying, without, that is, the use of technologies which make it extremely difficult to access and use information (such as encryption). The use of contracts formalizes the transition from an information policy based on public libraries to a system of universal access,’ modeled after telecommunication policy. With universal access, public access to the network is subsidized, but the consumer must pay for the information used. Previously, the fair use exemption to copyright has subsidized information access for educational purposes. Today, "universal access" is being defined as access to the Internet itself, rather than to educational information on the Internet. Thus information flows in the digital library of the future will likely be governed on a per capita or fee for service basis; on the other hand, these revenues will fund the development of vast high quality online libraries. The primary unsolved problem in this scenario, other than the obvious social inequality implied in this model, is the funding of the preservation of digital documents. In the past, libraries have preserved and stored printed information as an archive of the history of knowledge. As information loses its commercial value, it is unlikely that commercial rights-holders will subsidize its continued existence. In practice, then, access to library information may be governed by the ability to pay, in the absence of a license providing subsidized use by a given user population. The problem with library subsidies is that given the increasing commercialization of scientific publishing, the price of journals will continue to increase at double-digit annual rates, and few funding authorities have been willing to increase Library budgets proportionally simply to subsidize free access to information. Hence, today Library collections represent an increasingly smaller proportion of published information. To repeat the fundamental point, the future of post-baccalaureate education will be determined more by intellectual property policy than by technology. The subsidized research library of the future is likely to become a repository of archives, public domain information (including, at least for the moment, government information) and teaching collections. Access to scholarly journals will be by contract or license, either subsidized or on a fee-for-service basis. Located somewhere between these alternatives is the Web, and the question whether post-baccalaureate education can build learning spaces in the public domain. New Pathways to Learning in the Digital Library. The second part of this paper is experimental, in two senses. First, it describes technologies that are often experimental, but provide examples of learning with network technologies that may help to provoke a conversation about the design of a digital library appropriate for post-baccalaureate education. Second, it suggests that the pedagogy of post-baccalaureate education will require more than a basic "classroom model," the transmission of information from teacher to student, by taking advantage of new forms of collaborative learning. It is worth a brief digression to consider the second assumption, because it bears on organizational issues. Who will be participating in post-baccalaureate education in the future? My assumption is that life-long learning and distance education will create many new audiences for learning, with a great variety of educational needs. The American Society for Training & Development, focused on a business market estimated at $58 billion, recently attracted 26,000 attendees to a conference in San Francisco. The trade exposition was filled with examples of new learning technologies described below. Information access will be necessary for all of these learners, and sufficient for some. But the traditional assumption that information and learning are scarce resources that must be concentrated within Universities, centers to which learners must travel, is no longer valid. Information is no longer scarce, and learning can come to the learners. Thus the interesting problem is this: if post-baccalaureate education was able to control the social context of learning in the past, post-baccalaureate education must now enter the social world of the learner, wherever and whatever that may be. When the learner is distant from the traditional social world of the University, new modes of post-baccalaureate education might well have to be collaborative, to sustain an educational social world in the midst of family and work worlds. Here the social cognition theory of learning is useful, postulating that development is the result of internalizing the help of others, or "scaffolding." For this reason, the social worlds of the Internet, primitive as they may be, might be helpful places to explore. And, if the point needs practical justification, a number of formal university post-baccalaureate certificate and degree programs are already adapting the Web to these kinds of purposes. Risk: The Virtues of Anonymity and Role Playing. The screen is a window on a simulated world, although, remarkably, it is a world constructed largely of words, not multimedia images. Simulations of social relationships email, chat groups, games, MUDs and MOOs derive their power from speech, combining the facticity of the printed word with the sociability of conversation. It is new, then, in respect to the combination of words and actions and certainly new in its global reach and scale. But it is only a new species in the genera of imagined worlds made possible by the power of images of words, resembling Plato’s Republic, which, after all, Socrates called a "city in speech." What is interesting about the cities of speech on the Internet is that because invented identities (or "avatars") disguise the real name of participants, they feel freed from the ordinary consequences of their actions. In Life on the Screen Sherry Turkle has described the way that software and network communications are transforming the psychology of personality formation. Turkle asks whether traditional concepts of the self and human identity the fiction that there is an identity among the sense of self we enact in all social contexts and across time -- are sustainable. Perhaps we need a more deconstructed sense of self, she argues, and a sense that identity is an experiment in progress, balancing many selves in many social contexts. Turkle as a psychoanalyst is sensitive to the way life on the screen consists of emotional and intellectual experiments, taking advantage of anonymity and invented personae to take risks, "working through" emotional knots. Turkle as sociologist concludes that "virtual life" is emotionally and intellectually part of "real life," but virtual life contains a possibility of emotional play that can promote learning and healing. Turkle certainly does not argue that computer simulations always promote learning, she is open to the possibility yet skeptical. But there can be a link between play and learning, and online simulations may encourage risk and experimentation, because anonymity protects one from social consequences. Thus far, Internet communication has been far more successful as a tool for games than for learning; indeed, investment in computer games is far greater than investment in computer learning. But the spontaneous development of learning technologies on the Web, in parallel with far more sophisticated MOO technologies (which go beyond text and numbers to multimedia representation of information), have led to increased investment in these technologies for business training and development. Pensare, for example, is a Silicon Valley start-up that uses MOO technologies to teach business skills, including video mentoring by experts, simulations of business situations, and links to online discussion groups. The hypothesis is that risk-free learning environments encourage participation and experimentation; the unanswered question is whether skills learned in simulated environments are transferable to other social contexts. Tribe: Membership in Virtual Communities. The term virtual community’ describes the feelings of social solidarity made possible by interactive network software. The strong case for virtual community is made by journalists Howard Rheingold, describing "The Well," a San Francisco Bay Area based chat group, and Julian Dibble, describing Lambda Moo, an experimental virtual rooming house at Xerox PARC. Social scientists Barry Wellman and Milena Gulia make a moderate case, arguing that social networks on the Web are not very different from social networks experienced anywhere else. Deep feelings of community are rare in modern life, they argue, and virtual communities are more like the relationships most people have with casual acquaintances than with intimate friends. And, finally, critics point out that mass media are designed to simulate feelings of community, masking the social isolation and anonymity of a human/machine relationship. More usefully for our purposes, Virnoche and Marx point out that "virtual communities" and "real life" are not opposites, and that the strongest sense of virtual community comes when network communications are reinforced with face to face meetings. Thus, they have differentiated three kinds of virtual communities, each with its own quality as a place: community networks; virtual extensions; and virtual communities. Community networks. Community networks are based upon geographical proximity, but participation in a sense of place and community is extended by network communication, such as electronic mail, Internet relay chat, bulletin boards and Web pages. Virnoche and Marx give these examples of community networks: municipal governments using the network to involve citizens in political deliberation; corporations using electronic mail and teleconferencing. Clearly any community in a traditional sense of the word is dependent upon frequent personal interaction, but community networks reinforce a sense of membership by making information or communication more accessible. Virtual extensions. Virtual extensions sustain a sense of community among a group of people separated by geographical distance but who have intermittent personal contact. Virtual extensions typically create a sense of place by collaborative work on a shared problem, requiring occasional face to face meetings, but sustained by a sense of shared culture and profession. Many classrooms use Web pages and electronic mail as virtual extensions, to encourage discussion outside of classroom hours Virtual communities. Virtual communities in this strict sense, then, are groups of strangers separated by geographical distance, but sharing a common interest, expressed by an ongoing participation in computer mediated communication. Virtual communities in this specific sense may have relatively little stability over time, and relatively more listeners than speakers. And yet are of interest because they may be robust even if the members have never met and are separated by great distances. They are, in essence, a sustained conversation on a topic of mutual interest rather than physical proximity. They are most likely to be useful to those sharing interests or problems. Thus many of the most successful sites provide scarce information and advice about very specialized topics, such as political movements or the treatment of rare diseases, or perhaps simply a place to talk about a controversial topic without risk. How, then, do network communications create and sustain a sense of community, when they do? According to Wellman and Gulia, social relations in cyberspace have the following characteristics: topics tend to be specialized, not general; social structure is based upon a sense of reciprocity, and social status is gained by giving good answers; anonymity fosters communication among a wider diversity of people than most face to face communities; and, they tend to be quick to respond to questions. On the other hand, unlike traditional communities, they are not intimate, nor long term, do not require frequent contact, and do not have depth over many social contexts or concerns. Each of these models of virtual community’ may be relevant to post-baccalaureate education, whether practiced at a distance or not. While we do not understand the architecture of virtual communities very well the variables that help construct a sense of community and collaboration these sociological studies can aid in the analysis of the experiments currently in place in the field. 3. Lore: Communities of Practice. Describing how people learn by doing by working collaboratively, Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger coined the term communities of practice,’ pointing out that much of our learning comes from apprenticeship within the social contexts which we find ready at hand. One review of the literature describes various kinds of communities of practice, ranging "from the effectiveness of the invisible colleges in the progress of the scientific enterprise, to the roles of cliques in the functioning of bureaucracies. In between, they run the gamut from informal networks of cooperation among chemists working for competitive pharmaceutical industries, to back channel exchanges between members of the foreign offices of adversary countries and the appearance of gangs in schools and prisons." Because computer networks enable such communication on an unprecedented scale and depth, the idea of communities of practice is rapidly becoming the theoretical foundation of new theories of social organization, particularly in work focusing on the corporation of the future. In the new management literature, then, "communities of practice" are about the use of networked information in the practice of knowledge; this has become an important topic as intellectual property and innovation have become central to the economy. Here again there are interesting parallels between corporate training and development literatures, and work on the use of digital libraries in education. There is a particularly striking passage that describes leading-edge scientific research, which has profound implications for the way we think the relationship between information, communities of practice, and the production of knowledge. Describing authorship in biotechnology, Dan Cohen says: ...the complexity and rapid pace of research means that advances are necessarily made by large teams connected by their interlocking areas of expertise rather than by employment at the same institution or location. Thus a recently published paper on the DNA sequence of yeast chromosomes listed 133 authors from 85 institutions. In the biotech industry, collaborative networks are becoming the places where important intellectual activity occurs; belonging to them is essential to success in an industry that exists on the frontier of developing knowledge. These virtual teams point to the future shape of knowledge work in general, which some predict will be accomplished by widely dispersed groups and individuals woven into communities of practice by networks, groupware and a complex common task. While biotechnology may be an unusual field in the degree of collaborative research across both corporate and national boundaries, it raises profound questions about our concept of authorship and the role of groups in the creation of knowledge. As a consequence of the role of groups in industry and the science, computer science has created a field called computer supported collaborative work (CSCW), and calls these new software products "groupware." Professions and academic disciplines are also communities of practice, ones that operate on a global scale, although as much by shared literatures and travel to professional conventions as by computer networks. These are also the traditional domains of post baccalaureate education, and are relevant to its new audiences as well. Conclusion. The purpose of this essay was to provoke a vision of the digital library that would have to be designed and built if post-baccalaureate education is to be successful in an information society. Along the way four important constraints have emerged, and several new possibilities have been described. The constraints are these: that intellectual property policy is now focused on electronic commerce, not upon education as in the past; that technology priorities are focused on commercial transaction software, and if on education at all, use the more structured training pedagogies of business; that information is likely to cost more money than it does now, one way or another; and finally, that institutions of higher education are often more likely to compete than to cooperate, even when resources are very scarce. The possibilities are these: that Web technologies are extremely malleable and thus adaptable for educational purposes, and their future technological enhancements (such as XML) are likely to make them more so; that the human capacity for participating in communities is very strong, capable of asserting itself even within primitive technological environments; that these "technologies of freedom," as Ithiel de Sola Pool called them, are a medium for cooperation and creativity, if we have the will to use them; ideas do not originate as intellectual property; they are packaged within human beings, who often choose to place them within the public domain. . Peter Lyman, "Digital Documents and the Future of the Academic Community," Technology and Scholarly Communication (Berkeley: The University of California Press, forthcoming 1999). . And, Peter Lyman, "Designing Libraries to Be Learning Communities," Proceedings of the 1998 UKOLN Conference (London: Library Association Publishing, forthcoming). John Seeley Brown and Paul Duguid, "The Social Life of Documents," Release 1.0: Esther Dyson’s Monthly Report (New York: Edventure Holdings Incl., October 11, 1995). Peter Lyman, "What is a Digital Library? Technology, Intellectual Property and the Public Interest," Daedalus 125:4 (Fall 1996) 1-33. . . . Brian Hawkins, "The Unsustainability of the Traditional Library and the Threat to Higher Education," in Brian Hawkins and Patricia Battin (Editors), The Mirage of Continuity: Reconfiguring Academic Information Resources for the 21st Century (Washington D.C.: Association of American Universities and Council on Library & Information Resources, 1998) 129-153. . . See Peter Lyman and Brewster Kahle, "Archiving Digital Cultural Artifacts," D-Lib Magazine (July-August 1998), http://www.dlib.org/dlib/july98/07lyman.html. Ibid. This statistic is from Internet Archive research. John Hagel III & Arthur G. Armstrong, NetGain (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997). These contracts are very new, and the terms of information use change rapidly as publishers and consumers learn to manage the new format. However, media companies have been pressing to amend the Uniform Commercial Code Section IIB to create a national model for state legislatures to adopt, allowing contract to govern the sale of all digital products. See Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger, Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1991). . See Sherry Turkle, Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet (1995). See also Sherry Turkle, The Second Self (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984). Sherry Turkle, "Artificial Intelligence and Psychoanalysis: A New Alliance, 117 Daedalus 1, 241-68 (1988). . Barry Wellman and Milena Gulia, Net Surfers Don’t Ride Alone: Virtual Communities as Communities, Communities in Cyberspace (edited by Peter Kollock and Marc Smith), forthcoming. The University of California Press. Preprint available at http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~wellman/links/index.html. See also Sherry Turkle, "Virtuality and Its Discontents: Searching for Community in Cyberspace," The American Prospect 24(Winter 1996) 50-57. See, for example, James R. Beniger "Personalization of Mass Media and the Growth of Pseudo-Community," Communication Research 14:3 (June 1987) 352-371. Mary E. Virnoche and Gary T. Marx, "Only connect" E.M. Forster in an Age of Electronic Communication: Computer-Mediated Association and Community Networks"67:1 Sociological Inquiry 85-100 (1997). Wellman and Gulia, op. cit. Jean Lave and E. Wenger, Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, op. cit. See also Seth Chaiklin and Jean Lave (editors), Understanding Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Berndardo A. Huberman & Tad Hogg, "Communities of Practice: Performance and Evolution," Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory 1:1 (1995) p. 73. Don Cohen, "Toward a Knowledge Context: Report on the First Annual U.C. Berkeley Forum on Knowledge and the Firm," 40:3 California Management Review 228-240 (1998). Page 23, Italics added. On the end of authorship, see Mario Biagioli, "The Instability of Authorship: Credit and Responsibility in Contemporary Biomedicine," The FASEB Journal, 12(January 1998) 3-16; Walter W. Powell, "Learning from Collaboration: Knowledge and Networks in the Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Industries," 40:3 California Management Review 228-240 (1998). See Marshall Van Alstyne, The State of Network Organization: A Survey in Three Frameworks, 7:3 The Journal of Organizational Computing, (forthcoming).